Go 编程风格指南 - 最佳实践 #

// Good:
func (c *Config) WriteTextTo(w io.Writer) (int64, error)
func (c *Config) WriteBinaryTo(w io.Writer) (int64, error)

package creditcard

import (
    "errors"

    "path/to/money"
)

// ErrDeclined indicates that the issuer declines the charge.
var ErrDeclined = errors.New("creditcard: declined")

// Card contains information about a credit card, such as its issuer,
// expiration, and limit.
type Card struct {
    // omitted
}

// Service allows you to perform operations with credit cards against external
// payment processor vendors like charge, authorize, reimburse, and subscribe.
type Service struct {
    // omitted
}

func (s *Service) Charge(c *Card, amount money.Money) error { /* omitted */ }

// Good:
import (
    "path/to/creditcard"
    "path/to/money"
)

// Stub stubs creditcard.Service and provides no behavior of its own.
type Stub struct{}

func (Stub) Charge(*creditcard.Card, money.Money) error { return nil }

# Good:
go_library(
    name = "creditcardtest",
    srcs = ["creditcardtest.go"],
    deps = [
        ":creditcard",
        ":money",
    ],
    testonly = True,
)

// Good:
// AlwaysCharges stubs creditcard.Service and simulates success.
type AlwaysCharges struct{}

func (AlwaysCharges) Charge(*creditcard.Card, money.Money) error { return nil }

// AlwaysDeclines stubs creditcard.Service and simulates declined charges.
type AlwaysDeclines struct{}

func (AlwaysDeclines) Charge(*creditcard.Card, money.Money) error {
    return creditcard.ErrDeclined
}

package creditcard

type Service struct {
    // omitted
}

type Card struct {
    // omitted
}

// StoredValue manages customer credit balances.  This applies when returned
// merchandise is credited to a customer's local account instead of processed
// by the credit issuer.  For this reason, it is implemented as a separate
// service.
type StoredValue struct {
    // omitted
}

func (s *StoredValue) Credit(c *Card, amount money.Money) error { /* omitted */ }

// Good:
type StubService struct{}

func (StubService) Charge(*creditcard.Card, money.Money) error { return nil }

type StubStoredValue struct{}

func (StubStoredValue) Credit(*creditcard.Card, money.Money) error { return nil }

package payment

import (
    "path/to/creditcard"
    "path/to/money"
)

type CreditCard interface {
    Charge(*creditcard.Card, money.Money) error
}

type Processor struct {
    CC CreditCard
}

var ErrBadInstrument = errors.New("payment: instrument is invalid or expired")

func (p *Processor) Process(c *creditcard.Card, amount money.Money) error {
    if c.Expired() {
        return ErrBadInstrument
    }
    return p.CC.Charge(c, amount)
}

// Good:
package payment

import "path/to/creditcardtest"

func TestProcessor(t *testing.T) {
    var spyCC creditcardtest.Spy

    proc := &Processor{CC: spyCC}

    // declarations omitted: card and amount
    if err := proc.Process(card, amount); err != nil {
        t.Errorf("proc.Process(card, amount) = %v, want %v", got, want)
    }

    charges := []creditcardtest.Charge{
        {Card: card, Amount: amount},
    }

    if got, want := spyCC.Charges, charges; !cmp.Equal(got, want) {
        t.Errorf("spyCC.Charges = %v, want %v", got, want)
    }
}

// Bad:
package payment

import "path/to/creditcardtest"

func TestProcessor(t *testing.T) {
    var cc creditcardtest.Spy

    proc := &Processor{CC: cc}

    // declarations omitted: card and amount
    if err := proc.Process(card, amount); err != nil {
        t.Errorf("proc.Process(card, amount) = %v, want %v", got, want)
    }

    charges := []creditcardtest.Charge{
        {Card: card, Amount: amount},
    }

    if got, want := cc.Charges, charges; !cmp.Equal(got, want) {
        t.Errorf("cc.Charges = %v, want %v", got, want)
    }
}

// Good:
func abs(i int) int {
    if i < 0 {
        i *= -1
    }
    return i
}

// Good:
// innerHandler is a helper for some request handler, which itself issues
// requests to other backends.
func (s *Server) innerHandler(ctx context.Context, req *pb.MyRequest) *pb.MyResponse {
    // Unconditionally cap the deadline for this part of request handling.
    ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(ctx, 3*time.Second)
    defer cancel()
    ctxlog.Info("Capped deadline in inner request")

    // Code here no longer has access to the original context.
    // This is good style if when first writing this, you anticipate
    // that even as the code grows, no operation legitimately should
    // use the (possibly unbounded) original context that the caller provided.

    // ...
}

// Bad:
func (s *Server) innerHandler(ctx context.Context, req *pb.MyRequest) *pb.MyResponse {
    // Attempt to conditionally cap the deadline.
    if *shortenDeadlines {
        ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(ctx, 3*time.Second)
        defer cancel()
        ctxlog.Info(ctx, "Capped deadline in inner request")
    }

    // BUG: "ctx" here again means the context that the caller provided.
    // The above buggy code compiled because both ctx and cancel
    // were used inside the if statement.

    // ...
}

// Good:
func (s *Server) innerHandler(ctx context.Context, req *pb.MyRequest) *pb.MyResponse {
    if *shortenDeadlines {
        var cancel func()
        // Note the use of simple assignment, = and not :=.
        ctx, cancel = context.WithTimeout(ctx, 3*time.Second)
        defer cancel()
        ctxlog.Info(ctx, "Capped deadline in inner request")
    }
    // ...
}

// Bad:
func LongFunction() {
    url := "https://example.com/"
    // Oops, now we can't use net/url in code below.
}

// Good:
db := spannertest.NewDatabaseFromFile(...)

_, err := f.Seek(0, io.SeekStart)

b := elliptic.Marshal(curve, x, y)

// Bad:
db := test.NewDatabaseFromFile(...)

_, err := f.Seek(0, common.SeekStart)

b := helper.Marshal(curve, x, y)

// Good:
import (
    fspb "path/to/package/foo_service_go_proto"
    fsgrpc "path/to/package/foo_service_go_grpc"
)

// Good:
import (
    mapspb "path/to/package/maps_go_proto"
)

type Animal string

var (
    // ErrDuplicate occurs if this animal has already been seen.
    ErrDuplicate = errors.New("duplicate")

    // ErrMarsupial occurs because we're allergic to marsupials outside Australia.
    // Sorry.
    ErrMarsupial = errors.New("marsupials are not supported")
)

func pet(animal Animal) error {
    switch {
    case seen[animal]:
        return ErrDuplicate
    case marsupial(animal):
        return ErrMarsupial
    }
    seen[animal] = true
    // ...
    return nil
}

// Good:
func handlePet(...) {
    switch err := process(an); err {
    case ErrDuplicate:
        return fmt.Errorf("feed %q: %v", an, err)
    case ErrMarsupial:
        // Try to recover with a friend instead.
        alternate = an.BackupAnimal()
        return handlePet(..., alternate, ...)
    }
}

// Good:
func handlePet(...) {
    switch err := process(an); {
    case errors.Is(err, ErrDuplicate):
        return fmt.Errorf("feed %q: %v", an, err)
    case errors.Is(err, ErrMarsupial):
        // ...
    }
}

// Bad:
func handlePet(...) {
    err := process(an)
    if regexp.MatchString(`duplicate`, err.Error()) {...}
    if regexp.MatchString(`marsupial`, err.Error()) {...}
}

// Good:
if err := os.Open("settings.txt"); err != nil {
    return err
}

// Output:
//
// open settings.txt: no such file or directory

// Good:
if err := os.Open("settings.txt"); err != nil {
    // We convey the significance of this error to us. Note that the current
    // function might perform more than one file operation that can fail, so
    // these annotations can also serve to disambiguate to the caller what went
    // wrong.
    return fmt.Errorf("launch codes unavailable: %v", err)
}

// Output:
//
// launch codes unavailable: open settings.txt: no such file or directory

// Bad:
if err := os.Open("settings.txt"); err != nil {
    return fmt.Errorf("could not open settings.txt: %w", err)
}

// Output:
//
// could not open settings.txt: open settings.txt: no such file or directory

// Good:
func (s *Server) internalFunction(ctx context.Context) error {
    // ...
    if err != nil {
        return fmt.Errorf("couldn't find remote file: %w", err)
    }
}

// Bad:
func (*FortuneTeller) SuggestFortune(context.Context, *pb.SuggestionRequest) (*pb.SuggestionResponse, error) {
    // ...
    if err != nil {
        return nil, fmt.Errorf("couldn't find remote file: %w", err)
    }
}

// Good:
import (
    "google.golang.org/grpc/codes"
    "google.golang.org/grpc/status"
)
func (*FortuneTeller) SuggestFortune(context.Context, *pb.SuggestionRequest) (*pb.SuggestionResponse, error) {
    // ...
    if err != nil {
        // Or use fmt.Errorf with the %w verb if deliberately wrapping an
        // error which the caller is meant to unwrap.
        return nil, status.Errorf(codes.Internal, "couldn't find fortune database", status.ErrInternal)
    }
}

// Good:
err1 := fmt.Errorf("err1")
err2 := fmt.Errorf("err2: %w", err1)
err3 := fmt.Errorf("err3: %w", err2)
fmt.Println(err3) // err3: err2: err1
// err3 is a newest-to-oldest error chain, that prints newest-to-oldest.

// Bad:
err1 := fmt.Errorf("err1")
err2 := fmt.Errorf("%w: err2", err1)
err3 := fmt.Errorf("%w: err3", err2)
fmt.Println(err3) // err1: err2: err3
// err3 is a newest-to-oldest error chain, that prints oldest-to-newest.

// Bad:
err1 := fmt.Errorf("err1")
err2 := fmt.Errorf("err2-1 %w err2-2", err1)
err3 := fmt.Errorf("err3-1 %w err3-2", err2)
fmt.Println(err3) // err3-1 err2-1 err1 err2-2 err3-2
// err3 is a newest-to-oldest error chain, that neither prints newest-to-oldest
// nor oldest-to-newest.

// Good:
for _, sql := range queries {
  log.V(1).Infof("Handling %v", sql)
  if log.V(2) {
    log.Infof("Handling %v", sql.Explain())
  }
  sql.Run(...)
}

// Bad:
// sql.Explain called even when this log is not printed.
log.V(2).Infof("Handling %v", sql.Explain())

// Good:
func answer(i int) string {
    switch i {
    case 42:
        return "yup"
    case 54:
        return "base 13, huh"
    default:
        log.Fatalf("Sorry, %d is not the answer.", i)
        panic("unreachable")
    }
}

// Bad:
// Sprintf formats according to a format specifier and returns the resulting
// string.
//
// format is the format, and data is the interpolation data.
func Sprintf(format string, data ...interface{}) string

// Good:
// Sprintf formats according to a format specifier and returns the resulting
// string.
//
// The provided data is used to interpolate the format string. If the data does
// not match the expected format verbs or the amount of data does not satisfy
// the format specification, the function will inline warnings about formatting
// errors into the output string as described by the Format errors section
// above.
func Sprintf(format string, data ...interface{}) string

// Bad:
// Run executes the worker's run loop.
//
// The method will process work until the context is cancelled and accordingly
// returns an error.
func (Worker) Run(ctx context.Context) error

// Good:
// Run executes the worker's run loop.
func (Worker) Run(ctx context.Context) error

// Len returns the number of bytes of the unread portion of the buffer;
// b.Len() == len(b.Bytes()).
//
// It is safe to be called concurrently by multiple goroutines.
func (*Buffer) Len() int

// Grow grows the buffer's capacity.
//
// It is not safe to be called concurrently by multiple goroutines.
func (*Buffer) Grow(n int)

// Good:
// NewTicker returns a new Ticker containing a channel that will send the
// current time on the channel after each tick.
//
// Call Stop to release the Ticker's associated resources when done.
func NewTicker(d Duration) *Ticker

func (*Ticker) Stop()

// Good:
// Get issues a GET to the specified URL.
//
// When err is nil, resp always contains a non-nil resp.Body.
// Caller should close resp.Body when done reading from it.
//
//    resp, err := http.Get("http://example.com/")
//    if err != nil {
//        // handle error
//    }
//    defer resp.Body.Close()
//    body, err := io.ReadAll(resp.Body)
func (c *Client) Get(url string) (resp *Response, err error)

// Good:
if err := doSomething(); err != nil {
    // ...
}

// Bad:
if err := doSomething(); err == nil {
    // ...
}

// Good:
if err := doSomething(); err == nil { // if NO error
    // ...
}

// Good:
i := 42
// Bad:
var i = 42

// Good:
var (
    coords Point
    magic  [4]byte
    primes []int
)

// Bad:
var (
    coords = Point{X: 0, Y: 0}
    magic  = [4]byte{0, 0, 0, 0}
    primes = []int(nil)
)

// Good:
var coords Point
if err := json.Unmarshal(data, &coords); err != nil {

// Good:
type Counter struct {
    // This field does not have to be "*sync.Mutex". However,
    // users must now pass *Counter objects between themselves, not Counter.
    mu   sync.Mutex
    data map[string]int64
}

// Note this must be a pointer receiver to prevent copying.
func (c *Counter) IncrementBy(name string, n int64)

// Good:
func NewCounter(name string) *Counter {
    c := new(Counter) // "&Counter{}" is also fine.
    registerCounter(name, c)
    return c
}

var myMsg = new(pb.Bar) // or "&pb.Bar{}".

// Bad:
func NewCounter(name string) *Counter {
    var c Counter
    registerCounter(name, &c)
    return &c
}

var myMsg = pb.Bar{}

// Good:
var (
    coords   = Point{X: x, Y: y}
    magic    = [4]byte{'I', 'W', 'A', 'D'}
    primes   = []int{2, 3, 5, 7, 11}
    captains = map[string]string{"Kirk": "James Tiberius", "Picard": "Jean-Luc"}
)

// Good:
var (
  buf = new(bytes.Buffer) // non-empty Buffers are initialized with constructors.
  msg = new(pb.Message) // non-empty proto messages are initialized with builders or by setting fields one by one.
)

// Good:
var (
    // Preferred buffer size for target filesystem: st_blksize.
    buf = make([]byte, 131072)
    // Typically process up to 8-10 elements per run (16 is a safe assumption).
    q = make([]Node, 0, 16)
    // Each shard processes shardSize (typically 32000+) elements.
    seen = make(map[string]bool, shardSize)
)

// Good:
// sum computes the sum of all of the values. It reads from the channel until
// the channel is closed.
func sum(values <-chan int) int {
    // ...
}

// Bad:
func sum(values chan int) (out int) {
    for v := range values {
        out += v
    }
    // values must already be closed for this code to be reachable, which means
    // a second close triggers a panic.
    close(values)
}

// Bad:
func EnableReplication(ctx context.Context, config *replicator.Config, primaryRegions, readonlyRegions []string, replicateExisting, overwritePolicies bool, replicationInterval time.Duration, copyWorkers int, healthWatcher health.Watcher) {
    // ...
}

// Good:
type ReplicationOptions struct {
    Config              *replicator.Config
    PrimaryRegions      []string
    ReadonlyRegions     []string
    ReplicateExisting   bool
    OverwritePolicies   bool
    ReplicationInterval time.Duration
    CopyWorkers         int
    HealthWatcher       health.Watcher
}

func EnableReplication(ctx context.Context, opts ReplicationOptions) {
    // ...
}

// Good:
func foo(ctx context.Context) {
    // Complex call:
    storage.EnableReplication(ctx, storage.ReplicationOptions{
        Config:              config,
        PrimaryRegions:      []string{"us-east1", "us-central2", "us-west3"},
        ReadonlyRegions:     []string{"us-east5", "us-central6"},
        OverwritePolicies:   true,
        ReplicationInterval: 1 * time.Hour,
        CopyWorkers:         100,
        HealthWatcher:       watcher,
    })

    // Simple call:
    storage.EnableReplication(ctx, storage.ReplicationOptions{
        Config:         config,
        PrimaryRegions: []string{"us-east1", "us-central2", "us-west3"},
    })
}

// Bad:
func EnableReplication(ctx context.Context, config *placer.Config, primaryCells, readonlyCells []string, replicateExisting, overwritePolicies bool, replicationInterval time.Duration, copyWorkers int, healthWatcher health.Watcher) {
  ...
}

// Good:
type replicationOptions struct {
    readonlyCells       []string
    replicateExisting   bool
    overwritePolicies   bool
    replicationInterval time.Duration
    copyWorkers         int
    healthWatcher       health.Watcher
}

// A ReplicationOption configures EnableReplication.
type ReplicationOption func(*replicationOptions)

// ReadonlyCells adds additional cells that should additionally
// contain read-only replicas of the data.
//
// Passing this option multiple times will add additional
// read-only cells.
//
// Default: none
func ReadonlyCells(cells ...string) ReplicationOption {
    return func(opts *replicationOptions) {
        opts.readonlyCells = append(opts.readonlyCells, cells...)
    }
}

// ReplicateExisting controls whether files that already exist in the
// primary cells will be replicated.  Otherwise, only newly-added
// files will be candidates for replication.
//
// Passing this option again will overwrite earlier values.
//
// Default: false
func ReplicateExisting(enabled bool) ReplicationOption {
    return func(opts *replicationOptions) {
        opts.replicateExisting = enabled
    }
}

// ... other options ...

// DefaultReplicationOptions control the default values before
// applying options passed to EnableReplication.
var DefaultReplicationOptions = []ReplicationOption{
    OverwritePolicies(true),
    ReplicationInterval(12 * time.Hour),
    CopyWorkers(10),
}

func EnableReplication(ctx context.Context, config *placer.Config, primaryCells []string, opts ...ReplicationOption) {
    var options replicationOptions
    for _, opt := range DefaultReplicationOptions {
        opt(&options)
    }
    for _, opt := range opts {
        opt(&options)
    }
}

// Good:
func foo(ctx context.Context) {
    // Complex call:
    storage.EnableReplication(ctx, config, []string{"po", "is", "ea"},
        storage.ReadonlyCells("ix", "gg"),
        storage.OverwritePolicies(true),
        storage.ReplicationInterval(1*time.Hour),
        storage.CopyWorkers(100),
        storage.HealthWatcher(watcher),
    )

    // Simple call:
    storage.EnableReplication(ctx, config, []string{"po", "is", "ea"})
}

// Good:
// polygonCmp returns a cmp.Option that equates s2 geometry objects up to
// some small floating-point error.
func polygonCmp() cmp.Option {
    return cmp.Options{
        cmp.Transformer("polygon", func(p *s2.Polygon) []*s2.Loop { return p.Loops() }),
        cmp.Transformer("loop", func(l *s2.Loop) []s2.Point { return l.Vertices() }),
        cmpopts.EquateApprox(0.00000001, 0),
        cmpopts.EquateEmpty(),
    }
}

func TestFenceposts(t *testing.T) {
    // This is a test for a fictional function, Fenceposts, which draws a fence
    // around some Place object. The details are not important, except that
    // the result is some object that has s2 geometry (github.com/golang/geo/s2)
    got := Fencepost(tomsDiner, 1*meter)
    if diff := cmp.Diff(want, got, polygonCmp()); diff != "" {
        t.Errorf("Fencepost(tomsDiner, 1m) returned unexpected diff (-want+got):\n%v", diff)
    }
}

func FuzzFencepost(f *testing.F) {
    // Fuzz test (https://go.dev/doc/fuzz) for the same.

    f.Add(tomsDiner, 1*meter)
    f.Add(school, 3*meter)

    f.Fuzz(func(t *testing.T, geo Place, padding Length) {
        got := Fencepost(geo, padding)
        // Simple reference implementation: not used in prod, but easy to
        // reasonable and therefore useful to check against in random tests.
        reference := slowFencepost(geo, padding)

        // In the fuzz test, inputs and outputs can be large so don't
        // bother with printing a diff. cmp.Equal is enough.
        if !cmp.Equal(got, reference, polygonCmp()) {
            t.Errorf("Fencepost returned wrong placement")
        }
    })
}

type FS interface {
    Open(name string) (File, error)
}

// ExercisePlayer tests a Player implementation in a single turn on a board.
// The board itself is spot checked for sensibility and correctness.
//
// It returns a nil error if the player makes a correct move in the context
// of the provided board. Otherwise ExercisePlayer returns one of this
// package's errors to indicate how and why the player failed the
// validation.
func ExercisePlayer(b *chess.Board, p chess.Player) error

func ExerciseGame(t *testing.T, cfg *Config, p chess.Player) error {
    t.Helper()

    if cfg.Simulation == Modem {
        conn, err := modempool.Allocate()
        if err != nil {
            t.Fatalf("no modem for the opponent could be provisioned: %v", err)
        }
        t.Cleanup(func() { modempool.Return(conn) })
    }
    // Run acceptance test (a whole game).
}

// Good:
package deepblue_test

import (
    "chesstest"
    "deepblue"
)

func TestAcceptance(t *testing.T) {
    player := deepblue.New()
    err := chesstest.ExerciseGame(t, chesstest.SimpleGame, player)
    if err != nil {
        t.Errorf("deepblue player failed acceptance test: %v", err)
    }
}

// Good:
func mustAddGameAssets(t *testing.T, dir string) {
    t.Helper()
    if err := os.WriteFile(path.Join(dir, "pak0.pak"), pak0, 0644); err != nil {
        t.Fatalf("Setup failed: could not write pak0 asset: %v", err)
    }
    if err := os.WriteFile(path.Join(dir, "pak1.pak"), pak1, 0644); err != nil {
        t.Fatalf("Setup failed: could not write pak1 asset: %v", err)
    }
}

// Bad:
func addGameAssets(t *testing.T, dir string) error {
    t.Helper()
    if err := os.WriteFile(path.Join(d, "pak0.pak"), pak0, 0644); err != nil {
        return err
    }
    if err := os.WriteFile(path.Join(d, "pak1.pak"), pak1, 0644); err != nil {
        return err
    }
    return nil
}

package paint_test

import (
    "fmt"
    "testing"
)

func paint(color string) error {
    return fmt.Errorf("no %q paint today", color)
}

func badSetup(t *testing.T) {
    // This should call t.Helper, but doesn't.
    if err := paint("taupe"); err != nil {
        t.Fatalf("could not paint the house under test: %v", err) // line 15
    }
}

func mustGoodSetup(t *testing.T) {
    t.Helper()
    if err := paint("lilac"); err != nil {
        t.Fatalf("could not paint the house under test: %v", err)
    }
}

func TestBad(t *testing.T) {
    badSetup(t)
    // ...
}

func TestGood(t *testing.T) {
    mustGoodSetup(t) // line 32
    // ...
}

=== RUN   TestBad
    paint_test.go:15: could not paint the house under test: no "taupe" paint today
--- FAIL: TestBad (0.00s)
=== RUN   TestGood
    paint_test.go:32: could not paint the house under test: no "lilac" paint today
--- FAIL: TestGood (0.00s)
FAIL

// Good:
func TestRevEngine(t *testing.T) {
    engine, err := Start()
    if err != nil {
        t.Fatalf("Engine failed to start: %v", err)
    }

    num := 11
    var wg sync.WaitGroup
    wg.Add(num)
    for i := 0; i < num; i++ {
        go func() {
            defer wg.Done()
            if err := engine.Vroom(); err != nil {
                // This cannot be t.Fatalf.
                t.Errorf("No vroom left on engine: %v", err)
                return
            }
            if rpm := engine.Tachometer(); rpm > 1e6 {
                t.Errorf("Inconceivable engine rate: %d", rpm)
            }
        }()
    }
    wg.Wait()

    if seen := engine.NumVrooms(); seen != num {
        t.Errorf("engine.NumVrooms() = %d, want %d", seen, num)
    }
}

// Good:
tests := []struct {
    foo     *pb.Foo
    bar     *pb.Bar
    want    string
}{
    {
        foo: pb.Foo_builder{
            Name: "foo",
            // ...
        }.Build(),
        bar: pb.Bar_builder{
            Name: "bar",
            // ...
        }.Build(),
        want: "result",
    },
}

// mustLoadDataSet loads a data set for the tests.
//
// This example is very simple and easy to read. Often realistic setup is more
// complex, error-prone, and potentially slow.
func mustLoadDataset(t *testing.T) []byte {
    t.Helper()
    data, err := os.ReadFile("path/to/your/project/testdata/dataset")

    if err != nil {
        t.Fatalf("could not load dataset: %v", err)
    }
    return data
}

// Good:
func TestParseData(t *testing.T) {
    data := mustLoadDataset(t)
    parsed, err := ParseData(data)
    if err != nil {
        t.Fatalf("unexpected error parsing data: %v", err)
    }
    want := &DataTable{ /* ... */ }
    if got := parsed; !cmp.Equal(got, want) {
        t.Errorf("ParseData(data) = %v, want %v", got, want)
    }
}

func TestListContents(t *testing.T) {
    data := mustLoadDataset(t)
    contents, err := ListContents(data)
    if err != nil {
        t.Fatalf("unexpected error listing contents: %v", err)
    }
    want := []string{ /* ... */ }
    if got := contents; !cmp.Equal(got, want) {
        t.Errorf("ListContents(data) = %v, want %v", got, want)
    }
}

func TestRegression682831(t *testing.T) {
    if got, want := guessOS("zpc79.example.com"), "grhat"; got != want {
        t.Errorf(`guessOS("zpc79.example.com") = %q, want %q`, got, want)
    }
}

// Bad:
var dataset []byte

func TestParseData(t *testing.T) {
    // As documented above without calling mustLoadDataset directly.
}

func TestListContents(t *testing.T) {
    // As documented above without calling mustLoadDataset directly.
}

func TestRegression682831(t *testing.T) {
    if got, want := guessOS("zpc79.example.com"), "grhat"; got != want {
        t.Errorf(`guessOS("zpc79.example.com") = %q, want %q`, got, want)
    }
}

func init() {
    dataset = mustLoadDataset()
}

# No reason for this to perform the expensive initialization.
$ go test -run TestRegression682831

// Good:
var db *sql.DB

func TestInsert(t *testing.T) { /* omitted */ }

func TestSelect(t *testing.T) { /* omitted */ }

func TestUpdate(t *testing.T) { /* omitted */ }

func TestDelete(t *testing.T) { /* omitted */ }

// runMain sets up the test dependencies and eventually executes the tests.
// It is defined as a separate function to enable the setup stages to clearly
// defer their teardown steps.
func runMain(ctx context.Context, m *testing.M) (code int, err error) {
    ctx, cancel := context.WithCancel(ctx)
    defer cancel()

    d, err := setupDatabase(ctx)
    if err != nil {
        return 0, err
    }
    defer d.Close() // Expressly clean up database.
    db = d          // db is defined as a package-level variable.

    // m.Run() executes the regular, user-defined test functions.
    // Any defer statements that have been made will be run after m.Run()
    // completes.
    return m.Run(), nil
}

func TestMain(m *testing.M) {
    code, err := runMain(context.Background(), m)
    if err != nil {
        // Failure messages should be written to STDERR, which log.Fatal uses.
        log.Fatal(err)
    }
    // NOTE: defer statements do not run past here due to os.Exit
    //       terminating the process.
    os.Exit(code)
}

// Good:
var dataset struct {
    once sync.Once
    data []byte
    err  error
}

func mustLoadDataset(t *testing.T) []byte {
    t.Helper()
    dataset.once.Do(func() {
        data, err := os.ReadFile("path/to/your/project/testdata/dataset")
        // dataset is defined as a package-level variable.
        dataset.data = data
        dataset.err = err
    })
    if err := dataset.err; err != nil {
        t.Fatalf("could not load dataset: %v", err)
    }
    return dataset.data
}

// Good:
func TestParseData(t *testing.T) {
    data := mustLoadDataset(t)

    // As documented above.
}

func TestListContents(t *testing.T) {
    data := mustLoadDataset(t)

    // As documented above.
}

func TestRegression682831(t *testing.T) {
    if got, want := guessOS("zpc79.example.com"), "grhat"; got != want {
        t.Errorf(`guessOS("zpc79.example.com") = %q, want %q`, got, want)
    }
}

// Good:
key := "projectid: " + p

// Good:
str := fmt.Sprintf("%s [%s:%d]-> %s", src, qos, mtu, dst)

// Bad:
bad := src.String() + " [" + qos.String() + ":" + strconv.Itoa(mtu) + "]-> " + dst.String()

// Good:
b := new(strings.Builder)
for i, d := range digitsOfPi {
    fmt.Fprintf(b, "the %d digit of pi is: %d\n", i, d)
}
str := b.String()

// Good:
usage := `Usage:

custom_tool [args]`

// Bad:
usage := "" +
  "Usage:\n" +
  "\n" +
  "custom_tool [args]"